Richard Ling

Books

Mobile Phones and Mobile Communication
(by Rich Ling and Jonathan Donner) With staggering swiftness, the mobile phone has become a fixture of daily life in almost every society on earth. In 2007, the world had over 3 billion mobile subscriptions. Prosperous nations boast of having more subscriptions than people. In the developing world, hundreds of millions of people who could never afford a landline telephone now have a mobile number of their own. With a mobile in our hand many of us feel safer, more productive, and more connected to loved ones, but perhaps also more distracted and less involved with things happening immediately around us. Written by two leading researchers in the field, this volume presents an overview of the mobile telephone as a social and cultural phenomenon. Research is summarized and made accessible though detailed descriptions of ten mobile users from around the world. These illustrate popular debates, as well as deeper social forces at work. The book concludes by considering three themes: 1) the tighter interlacing of daily activities 2) a revolution of control in the social sphere, and 3) the arrival of a world where the majority of its inhabitants are reachable, anytime, anywhere.
New Tech, New Ties: Ties: How Mobile Communication Is Reshaping Social Cohesion
The message of this book is simple: the mobile phone strengthens social bonds among family and friends. With a traditional land-line telephone, we place calls to a location and ask hopefully if someone is "there"; with a mobile phone, we have instant and perpetual access to friends and family regardless of where they are. But when we are engaged in these intimate conversations with absent friends, what happens to our relationship with the people who are actually in the same room with us? In New Tech, New Ties, Rich Ling examines how the mobile telephone affects both kinds of interactions--those mediated by mobile communication and those that are face to face. Ling finds that through the use of various social rituals the mobile telephone strengthens social ties within the circle of friends and family--sometimes at the expense of interaction with those who are physically present--and creates what he calls "bounded solidarity." Ling argues that mobile communication helps to engender and develop social cohesion ithin the family and the peer group. Drawing on the work of Emile Durkheim, Erving Goffman, and Randall Collins, Ling shows that ritual interaction is a catalyst for the development of social bonding. From this perspective, he examines how mobile communication affects face-to-face ritual situations and how ritual is used in interaction mediated by mobile communication. He looks at the evidence, including interviews and observations from around the world, that documents the effect of mobile communication on social bonding and also examines some of the other possibly problematic issues raised by tighter social cohesion in small groups.
The Mobile Connection: The Cell Phone's Impact on Society
The Publisher's description is as follows: Can the cell phone forever change the way people communicate? The mobile phone is more than simply a technical innovation or a social fad, more than just an intrusion on polite society. This book, based on worldwide research involving tens of thousands of interviews and contextual observations, looks into the impact of the phone on our daily lives, including changes in our accessibility, safety and security, coordination, and use of public places. Based on research done in many countries, the book examines the once unexpected interaction between humans and cell phones, and between humans, period: how the mobile phone is used for "real time" coordination while on the run, how adolescents use it to manage their freedom, and how teens "text" to each other day and night without discovery.
Mobile Communications : Re-negotiation of the Social Sphere (co-edited with Per Pedersen)
This book surveys some of the broader issues associated with the adoption & use of mobile communication, & explores developing areas of inquiry. Mobile communications are looked at in the context of other types of mediated interaction, demonstrating the uniqueness of this form of communication & how it is influencing the renegotiation of the social sphere. The book considers how mobile communication has impacted on society and reflects on how it is used (& sometimes resented) in various public & private spaces. It provides an in-depth analysis of specific areas which complement our understanding of the phenomena including:-The psychological dimensions of mobile communication (addiction, proclivity to be disturbed by others' use of the mobile phone), -The linguistics of mobile communication, & -The understanding of mobile communication?s commercialisation. A valuable addition to any researcher?s or professional?s reading material in the area of interaction of technology & society.

Papers

The Mediation of Ritual Interaction via the Mobile Telephone
This paper asks what it is that holds society together and how is the social order is created and maintained, also in the context of mobile communication. It also examines the interaction between the ideational world and our everyday concrete interactions with others and with our physical world? Further, ritual—be it in the context of larger groups or, as is perhaps more often the case, in the context of mundane life—shape our experience of social solidarity, and, the point of the present chapter, how does mediated interaction play into social ritual?
Media Visionaries: Broadcast Radio, Silicon Chips and the Negroponte Switch
This paper explores a series of historical case studies examining technical evolution and the interaction of technical development with the slogans and catch phrases used to help organize the institutional development of the technologies.
Trust, cohesion and social networks: The case of quasi-illicit photos in a teen peer group
This paper examines the way in which a small group of teen males negotiate the use of photos taken with mobile phones and posted on so-called social network sites.

Children, youth and mobile communication
Teens are, perhaps the most consummate mobile telephone users. Teens have made text messaging into a common form of interaction. They have learned how to coordinate and indeed micro-coordinate interaction via the mobile telephone. They use the camera to share photos of enticing members of the opposite sex and to gather peer opinion on the color of potential clothes purchases. The mobile phone is a safety link, it allows for effective coordination, it is an object lesson in the use of money for teens and often, it is a reluctantly accepted umbilical cord to their parents and a central artifact of their self-image. At the same time the device has resulted in school bans, a new form of bullying and has opened a new front in the war against cheating during exams. There are reports of mobile phone addiction in Korea (Park, 2003) and the extended use of mobile communication can impact on adolescents sleep.
Mobile communication and mediated ritual
This paper examines the question of social cohesion as moderated through the use of the mobile phone. The paper looks at this through the lens of sociology where a major theme has been the drive to understand cohesion vis-a-vis technological development. Using Durkheim's notion of ritual and its specification by Goffman and Collins the paper asserts that mobile communication supports cohesion. Using the examples of romantic involvement, gossip, joking/banter and argot the paper examines how cohesion is engendered. Next Licoppe's notion of connected presence is examined in this context. In addition, various quantitative studies are used to also illuminate this point. Finally, there is a discussion of the "optimal" level of social cohesion. In summary, the paper suggests that, perhaps uniquely among ICTs, that the mobile phone fosters cohesion.
The length of text messages and use of predictive texting: Who uses it and how much do they have to say?
Text messaging - or texting - via mobile telephones has become a fixture in many parts of the world. The ability to cheaply send text messages on a mobile asynchronous basis was adopted first by teens and is now spreading to other parts of the population. This said, texting is not an intuitive process. The interface is difficult to master, and the technology is being pressed into areas for which it was not necessarily intended. It is into this arena that systems of predictive texting have been introduced. Predictive texting is intended to simplify text entry and to facilitate interaction.
What would Durkheim have thought?: Living in (and with) the information society
In this paper I discuss the interaction between mobile communication and society. I consider the impact of mobile communication on the sense of social cohesion.

Life in the Nomos: Stress, emotional maintenance and coordination via the mobile telephone in intact families
The material in this paper examines how Norwegian parents use the mobile phone and transportation in their relationship maintance. The interviews illustrate how the partners construct, live in and maintain what Berger and Kellner call a nomic situation. The interviews give us insight into the active nature of the families’ lives – particularly those with smaller children – and the effort needed to keep afloat in the hectic stream of everyday life. It looks at how couples seemingly develop a stock of routines that can be used to attend to the ongoing needs of the family. These routines have a practical dimension in that they for examplehelp the couple know how and when to shop for food, help the children with lessons, wash the clothes and the like. Technology, and specifically the automobile and the mobile telephone are brought into this process in various ways. The comments here show that these devices are used to facilitate the tasks of the parents.
Exclusion of elderly persons in the case of text messaging
This paper examines the use of texting among Norwegians and in particular among elderly persons. The data examined here shows that when given the choice of SMS or a voice call, a majority of the respondents would prefer to use SMS to readjust a hypothetical meeting in the case that their interlocutor was 20 years-old. However, only a small handful chose SMS when the hypothetical interlocutor was an 80-year-old person. On the one hand, not texting to an elderly person is seemingly obvious. As the data indicates, any person with a normal sense of social propriety would not do this. However, this finding also provides access to a broader set of questions having to do with the use of mediation of technology in society. On the one hand there is a reluctance to include elderly persons in certain types of mediated intercourse as evidenced by the material cited above. This speaks to a perhaps stereotypical understanding of their ability to deal with the technology involved in this type of mediated interaction. On the other hand, the data seem to indicate that the elderly remove themselves from consideration when thinking about the use of texting. They are among the least active users of both voice mobile and SMS (albeit elderly persons are active users of the landline telephone). They have the smallest circle of mobile telephonic partners and they score lowest in terms of ability to manipulate the technology. Thus, the elderly are, in some ways the victims of exclusion, but also the agents of their status.
The length of text messages and the use of predictive texting:Who uses it and how much do they have to say?
The use of texting on mobile telephones is a common activity in many countries. To facilitate this, various approaches to predictive texting have been developed. Based on an analysis of 417 text messages gathered form a random selection of Norwegians the results show that these systems have facilitated text entry, but the material in this analysis indicates that they have not increased the length of the messages.
The complexity of everyday life: The car, the mobile phone and other factors that contribute to and alleviate the sense of time pressure and stress
This article considers various aspects of stress. variables is that those persons, and in particular those women who work a lot and also express a desire to have an active lifestyle (membership in organizations, participation in activities, active in social interactions) express higher levels of stress and time pressure. They are also likely to rely more on the automobile and the mobile telephone. Thus, the results support the notion that these devices are seen by the respondents as a way to manage their lives.
The socio-linguistics of SMS: An analysis of SMS use by a random sample of Norwegians
In this paper I will examine a corpus of SMS messages gathered from a random sample of 2003 Norwegians. The data was collected in May of 2002 by telephone. Along with demographic, behavioral and attitudinal questions associated with mobile and SMS use, we asked the respondents to read (and where necessary, to spell out) the content of the last three messages they had sent. This resulted in a body of 882 SMS messages from 463 (23%) of the 2002 respondents. What does all this tell us about the socio linguistic nature of SMS? The paper examines various aspects of SMS production including themes in the messages, frequently used words, word and message length, use pf punctuation, capitalization, salutations and closings, etc. A general finding is that the culture of SMS lives among younger women users. In spite of the fact that men were early adopters of mobile telephone, it is among these women that the great motor of SMS lives. Women, and in particular younger women, seem to have a broader register when using SMS. They use them for immediate practical coordination issues and also for the more emotional side of mobile communication. In addition, their messages are longer, have a more complex structure and retain more of the traditional conventions associated with other written forms than men. This competence is also extended to telephonic communication.
Flexible coordination in the Nomos: Stress, emotional maintenance and coordination via the mobile telephone in intact families
The material examined here looks into Norwegian parents' use of mobile communication and transportation in relationship maintenance. The material examined here is a part of a larger study of transportation and communication in everyday life. The material was gathered as a part of series of 25 interviews carried out in the Oslo area in December of 2003. The interviewees were selected based on their marital/domestic and their parental status. We interviewed the parents of small children aged 4 - 8 years (approximately 50% of the interviews) and also the parents of teens aged 11 - 15 years (again approximately 50% of the interviews). This sample allowed us to examine the issues of familial coordination since the youngest age group is completely dependent on their parents' daily care and attention, the older group is more independent. Based on interview material, the results illustrate how the partners construct, live in and maintain what Berger and Kellner call a nomic situation. The interviews give us insight into the active nature of the families' lives - particularly those with smaller children - and the effort needed to keep afloat in hectic stream of everyday life. It looks at how couples seemingly develop a stock of routines that can be used to attend to the ongoing needs of the family. These routines have a practical dimension in that they for example help the couple know how and when to shop for food, help the children with lessons, wash the clothes and the like. Technology, and specifically the automobile and the mobile telephone are brought into this process in various ways. The comments here show that these devices are used to facilitate the tasks of the parents. They are used in order to facilitate everyday life and, in this way to assist in the continuance of this social context. The "second" car in the family is used to deliver the children to various activities while one of the parents uses another to commute to a more or less distant job. The mobile telephone is used arrange shopping tours on the fly and to coordinate who will be picking up which child at day-care. The technology is a tool that is used to facilitate the couples' responsibilities. Thus, the technology becomes a medium through which the social order is maintained.
Grounded genres in multimedia messaging
In order to better understand the use of MMS, a field trial including three different groups of users was launched in June 2003, giving employees in different mobile teams free access to MMS for a period of 6 months. The groups where all relatively small but in many respects they were highly integrated with a dense internal network of communication. The three groups included 1) a team of mobile salespeople for a soft drink company, 2) a group of real estate salespeople and 3) a team of carpenters. All members of the respective teams were given a camera telephone with which they could send and receive MMS messages. The specific groups were chosen based on their mobile approach to working. In each case they had a nomadic style of work. This study shows how the use of a mobile multimedia messaging system (MMS) depends on the development of grounded genres in order that it can develop into a useful professional tool. Based on the field trial among three different groups of professionals, several general genres of use were identified. These included ddocumentation of work related objects, visualisation of details, snap shots, postcards and greetings and chain-messages. Only one group used MMS extensively after the six-month long field trial. In all the teams however the more expressive genres of snap shots and postcard and greetings were used. Some possible explanations for the variations in the adoption of MMS are discussed, including former experiences with mobile medias, the need for documentation and visualisation in their jobs, the internal structure of the group and the relative advantage of MMS in comparison with other available medias. The paper was co-authored by Tom Julsrud.
The adoption, use and social consequences of mobile communication
In 2003, 100% of Norwegian teens aged 16 - 19 had a mobile telephone. This surprising statistic points to the rapid adoption of a technology that was only marginally commercial when these teens were born in the mid to late 1980's. This paper is based on the analysis of survey data collected by Statistics Norway in cooperation with Telenor. Over the period described as many as 10 000 individuals have participated in the various surveys. I will look at some of the watershed transitions associated with mobile telephony, including its adoption into the broader society, teens' enthusiastic embrace of the technology and the rise of SMS - led by teens. The paper also examines osme of the dynamics that have not changed including general time use on the phone and the gendering of the technology. Finally, the article considers some of the broader consequences of mobile telephony.
Mobile telephones and the disturbance of the public sphere
We are growing more accustom to other's use of the device and many of us use it ourselves. The social achievement of this has not come without comment. Indeed, it has been the focus of intense discussions and various types of moral arguments. Drawing on Goffmanian analysis of social settings, I examine this issue here. The case of the mobile telephone has provided insight into the machinations of society. It helps us to understand how society contextualizes and embeds innovations into our sense of the social order.
Just connect The social world of the mobile phone
The boundaries of human relationships are changing. Mediated interaction, particularly electronic interaction via the internet and mobile phones has changed the way we conduct our relationships. Whereas before there was an emphasis on face to face interaction, now people employ technology to develop and maintain relationships. This article examines the rapid rise of mobile telephony and considers how it has changed social interaction.
Control, emancipation and status: The mobile telephone in the teen's parental and peer group control relationships
This is an edited version of the paper "Kontroll, frigj?ring og status: Mobiltelefon og maktforhold i familier og ungdomsgrupper" that was co-authored by Birgitte Yttri. In this paper, we look into adolescents' interactions with parents and peers from a power perspective. We find that parental interactions have dimensions of both Weberian power, but also can be seen in ritual forms that follow from the analysis of Goffman and Collins. In addition, peer group interactions have many ritual and symbolic aspects. The introduction of the mobile telephone has changed the way in which these power relations are carried out. The primary data for this analysis comes from interviews with teens. The analysis also includes some broader quantitative analyses based on random samples of Norwegian teens.
Mobile communications vis-?-vis teen emancipation, peer group integration and deviance
SMS and mobile voice telephony have become a common part of the teen experience in Norway. Almost 19 out of 20 teens own a mobile telephone. In addition, Norwegian teens are frequent users of mobile voice telephony and, in particular SMS. Access to mobile communication plays into the way teens experience emancipation from their parents, their integration into the peer group and the resulting boundary testing issues. In addition, the device plays into more illicit behaviors for a small portion of teens. This paper uses the survey data gathered from a random selection of 11 928 teens in Norwegian Statistical Research's study Ung i Norge (Young in Norway). The data was collected in February of 2002. The data material provides one with broad insight into many facets of teen's lives. The analysis here indicates that SMS and mobile voice telephony play into the adolescent experience in complex ways. The analysis indicates that these forms of mobile communication facilitate emancipation assist in peer group bonding, and, in a small number of cases, play into more illicit activities. There is, however a special role in terms of boundary testing behaviors that is, in many ways, an integral part of emancipation.
"I have a free telephone so I don't bother to send SMS, I call:" The gendered use of SMS among adults in intact and divorced families
Language and the strategic use of language is a part of our ritual interaction with the world. We use words, intonation etc. and we select media, in order to manage focused encounters. The paper traces how interviewees discussed the use of either voice mobile telephony or SMS to carry out everyday interactions. Indeed much of this paper will involve a discussion of choosing or being forced to choose one media over another in order to achieve our goals. Thus, while we speak of "setting the agenda" as a way to dominate an interaction, we can speak of "setting the media" in the same sense. The material for this analysis comes from a series of 25 interviews with families in the Oslo area. Interviewees included both intact and divorced families. We were also interested in examining the situation of families with younger and older children to examine the degree that mobile communication facilitated coordination. Among the separated families in five cases we were able to interview both of the partners. The paper concludes by noting that social interaction is played out through a particular media and the way that it is played out through the mutual willingness to accept one another's guises and stratagems is being developed and elaborated. The introduction of SMS onto the scene gives us the chance to see the process afresh. The mediation form has not acquired the patina of being an entrenched form of interaction and so the elaboration and nuance of the strategies is similarly new. We are in the privileged position to see the management of focused social encounters with fresh eyes. We can watch how simple every day activities are being managed in a slightly different way and how the rules surrounding the interaction are being freshly minted.
Mobile communication and social capital in Europe
Based on material gathered within the EU e-living project, this paper examines one's integration into their social network and the relationship between Information and Communication Technology (ICT) use and social integration. The data was gathered via questionnaire in Norway, the UK, Germany, Italy, Bulgaria and Israel. A total of 10,534 persons were interviewed, approximately 1,750 in each country. The interviews took place in December of 2001. In order to examine this issue we will first look at the current discussion on social capital and social capital with reference to the Internet and mobile telephony. It seems that one of the contributions of this analysis is the combination of these two technologies to the examination of social capital. Where previous analyses have generally examined Internet's contribution to one's interaction with various social spheres, there have been few analyses of mobile telephony's effect on this part of life. This paper was co-authored with Brigitte Yttri, Ben Andersen and Deborah Diduca.
Kontroll, frigj?ring og status: Mobiltelefon og maktforhold i familier og ungdomsgrupper
See the abstract above provided for the paper "Control, emancipation and status: The mobile telephone in the teen's parental and peer group control relationships. This is the Norwegian version of the paper that was published as a part of the Norwegian 'makt utredningen' (analysis of power in society)"
Age and gender as determinants of broadband acceptance: The case of interactive media use in Stavanger, Norway
This paper examines user evaluations of a broadband trial held in Stavanger, Norway. The technology was installed in the homes of 750 families in this area and via the broadband connection, users received access to interactive TV services and broadband Internet. Among other techniques, conjoint analysis and qualitative interviews were used to evaluate user attitudes toward the system. While one must be cautious in generalizing the results, the data shows that access to high-speed Internet was the most compassionate dimension associated with the trial. It dominates the other dimensions, particularly those associated with the interactive TV offering in the trial. However, when examining the data by gender, one sees that while men are particularly focused on high-speed Internet. Much of this is driven by interest in MP3 downloading among younger users. Women, however, were more focused on access to enhanced TV services. This finding is examined in the context of user's gendered access to technology in the home. This paper was co-authored with Kristin Thrane.
"I don't watch TV to like learn anything" The leisure use of TV and the Internet
This article is the second in a series of articles examining the use of ICT in the home (see Ling and Thrane 2001). The article is based on 15 in-home interviews with families in the Oslo area. Building on this material we find that ICTs, and in particular the TV and the PC/Internet, have a changing role vis-?-vis leisure activities. Looking across the various types of leisure activities respondents indicate that these range from passive use of technologies, to extremely intense use, as seen for example in the use of video game devices. Another dimension that arises out of the material is the degree to which the ICT is a social device. In some cases, one uses it in a solitary way. In-house sociability is the next level and this is followed by sociability in the broader society. Obviously, the TV and the PC/Internet have very different profiles here. Finally, the material examined here indicates that there are intergeneration differences in the approach to technology. While older respondents generally have a more crystallized understanding of the placement and use of, in particular, the TV and the PC/Internet, younger interviewees seems more willing to blur the boundary between the two. In particular, we note that the PC can be used to provide audio (MP3) and visual (DVD films) entertainment. After a discussion of the methods and the background for the analysis, we will turn to the examination of the TV and the PC/Internet in the leisure activities of the home. This paper was co-authored with Kristin Thrane.
The social juxtaposition of mobile telephone conversations and public spaces
This paper examines the use of mobile telephony in public spaces. It looks into the issue of how and why mobile telephony is seen as being disturbing. The two major issues are first, the way in which the device disturbs the web of front and back channel interactions found in a social setting and second the difficulties of managing issues surrounding eavesdropping and courtesy. The paper bases its findings on direct observation of mobile users in their natural environment. The paper finds that mobile telephony in public spaces contradicts the taken for granted notions of public behavior. Beyond this, the paper concludes with a short discussion regarding the potential of the mobile telephone to contribute to or detract from the general development of social capital.
Mobile end-user service adoption studies: A selective review
Even though technological, business strategic and behavioral requirements should be met to obtain widespread adoption of the end-user 3G services, the behavioral demand-side adoption requirements are focused upon in this paper. To understand the adoption requirements of end-users, analyses of their context-specific and role-specific behavior when adopting such services should be conducted. Much research has already been conducted on end-users' adoption of traditional mobile networks services, such as voice and messaging services. In this paper, we provide frameworks for categorizing this research and present representative research on adoption behavior. Using the frameworks, we also identify research questions and areas of research that have been given little attention in existing research, but may be of particular importance to understanding the adoption of 3G services. The first author on this paper is Per Pedersen.
"Nobody sits at home and waits for the telephone to ring:" Micro and hyper-coordination through the use of the mobile telephone
In this paper we outline the concepts of micro- and hyper-coordination via the use of the mobile telephone. The material is based on 10 group interviews carried out in Norway in the fall of 1999. The analysis shows that micro-coordination, largely an instrumental activity, was common for two-career parents. When examining the teens, however, we found that in addition to the instrumental use, they have adopted the expressive use of the device. This, in addition to the use of the device in the social presentation of self has lead us to call their use hyper-coordination. This adoption of technology follows from their specific life period where they desire access to peers and wish to distance themselves, to a certain degree, from their parents. The mobile telephone is a logical tool in this work. Other advantages are that it allows them new ways with which to develop intimate relationships and to remain abreast of social life. This paper was co-authored by Brigitte Yttri.
The social and cultural consequences of mobile telephony as seen in the Norwegian context
Based on material gathered in Norway, this paper considers the role of four themes in the adoption and use of the mobile telephone. These four issues are safety, micro-coordination, accessibility and the disturbing influence of the device. These four issues have arisen as elements in the public understanding of the mobile telephone in that they are used to characterize the everyday use of the device. These issues are examined based on the qualitative and quantitative data that have been gathered over the past decade.
Mobile telephony, mobility and the coordination of everyday life
Against the backdrop of extensive urban expansion and suburbanization (Chen. 2000; Crawford 1994; Haddon 2001; Hall 1989;Thorns 1972) telephony facilitates the coordination between individuals. However, we have also seen a number of claims about the potential effects that telecommunications can have on mobility. For example, there is the suggestion that telephony and transport stimulate each other (Falk and Abler 1980). Others argue that telephony modifies travel rather than reducing demand (Salomon 1985), and yet, others note the contrary idea that telephony replaces transport (Claisse and Rowe 1993; Claisse and Rowe 1988). However, to date these discussions have concerned fixed telephony. A range of, mainly qualitative, studies now exist concerning the use of the mobile phone, some of which have indicated implications for mobility. The first step in this paper is to assemble and review this material in relation to certain key issues. These include 1) The role of the mobile phone in the micro-coordination of activities and modification of travel, 2) Gender differences in relation to mobility, coordination and mobile telephone use, 3) The question as to whether mobile telephony promotes or reduces travel, 4) The location of mobile phone use. This paper then goes on to report the findings of a relatively small scale Norwegian quantitative study that has taken the first steps to explore these facets of the relationship between mobility and the mobile phone. Reflecting on this study, the final part of the paper considers how this whole line of investigation might be further developed in future research. This paper was co-authored with Leslie Haddon.
Qualitative analysis design for international, multi-lingual projects
This paper outlines a method for carrying out qualitative international, multi-lingual research and analysing the results in a quasi-structured form.
The diffusion of mobile telephony among Norwegian teens: A report from after the revolution
This paper is an examination of the diffusion of mobile telephony in Norway, and particularly among teens. There has been a near saturation of this social group. Given this situation, it is of interest to know what this can tell us regarding the mechanisms of adoption. Given this focus I look into the work of Rogers' and that of Silverstone and Haddon and their domestication perspective. The positive and the negative sides of these approaches are examined in the light of the recent experience with the mobile telephone. Rogers' discussion of the social mechanisms behind diffusion and his work on the critical mass of communication equipment are of interest. On the other hand his basis in the world of marketing and perhaps simplistic diffusion progression are questioned. The alternative approach, that of domestication is seen to be a more of a global analysis of adoptions ex post facto. The approach provides one with an understanding of how innovations change and are changed by their social contexts. Finally, several areas of further research are outlined.
"It actually separates us a little bit, but I think that is an advantage": The management of electronic media in Norwegian households
This paper examines the ownership and use of ICTs in the home. It is based on in-depth interviews with 15 "teen" families in the Oslo area carried out in the summer of 2000. The paper develops the notion of zones, spheres and rules and tools with which to see the influence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in the home. Zones are the various spheres in the home such as the living room, the more functional kitchen and the more remote bedrooms. Each of these has special demands in terms of ICT furnishings. Spheres are the more transitory needs and interests of individuals within the home as they manage the ambiance and use the home in various ways. Finally, rules are used to codify the use of ICTs in various situations. The article finds that within the context of the homes that ICTS are an often used actively to 1) provide a distinction between various zones in the home, 2) bring together and/or isolate individuals in the home. This results in a discussion of the ability of ICTs to divide or to unite the family. Looking specifically at the placement of ICTs, we found that the PC was problematic in the context of the living room, sometimes accepted into the bedrooms but was never mentioned as a part of the kitchen. The TV has found its place in the living room but is more problematic in the kitchen and in some, but not all parents' bedrooms. All of this is contradicted when in children's bedrooms where one often finds a nascent apartment as the child approaches the establishment of their own independent life. This paper was co-authored by Kristin Thrane.
"It is 'in.' It doesn't matter if you need it or not, just that you have it.": Fashion and the domestication of the mobile telephone among teens in Norway
In this paper looks into the use of mobile telephones as an element teen's sense of fashion and personal display. It is based on qualitative material gathered in 1997, 1999 and 2000, the period during which mobile telephones were generally adopted by the teens in Norway. The recent adoption of the mobile telephone by teens provides one with the insight needed for this type of analysis. In this context fashion, and its interpretation is examine. Three levels to the interpretation of style that are discussed. These include 1) the use of style to carry out some type of intended display, 2) the analysis of style as a type of communication interaction between the person presenting the style and the person or persons who are viewing it and 3) the use of comments about style and fashion as a way to integrate a group and maintain its inner solidarity. It is this last approach that has been most central to the analysis since it opens up the ability to account for both positive, but more often negative characterizations of style.
Direct and mediated interaction in the maintainance of social relationships
This paper is an analysis of how mediated interaction has changed the ways in which we establish and develop interpersonal relationships. The paper examines the dimensions of friendship and also the attempts to separate out the role of interaction via various media such as mobile telephony, MUDs, MOOs, and IRC. The paper finds that interaction via the Internet may aid the establishment of relationships. The relationships are, however, slower to develop and necessarily migrate over to other forms of communication including face to face interaction. After the establishment of a relationship there is a preference for more simultaneous, direct interaction with which one can coordinate every day activities
The impact of the mobile phone on four established social institutions
This paper is an examination of the impact of mobile telephony on four social institutions. The institutions are democracy, bureaucracy, education and also adolescence. The material considered here draws both on the existing literature of mobile telephony, qualitative work carried out in Norway and also quantitative analyses from Norway. The analysis shows that the more direct communication provided by the mobile telephone will likely have impacts on the level at which communication takes place within the various institutions, the ways in which pattern maintenance activities take place and also in the independence of the actors within the institutions.
"It must be necessary, it has to cover a need": The adoption of mobile telephony among pre-adolescents and adolescents
This paper considers the question of when it is appropriate for pre-adolescents and adolescents to adopt and use the mobile telephone. The question is considered from several perspectives using secondary literature and also material from various qualitative and quantitative studies dealing with this issue. The results show that it is generally when the individual enters their teen-aged years that the mobile telephone makes sense as a way to maintain contact and organize their social networks. This paper was co-authored by Per Helmersen.
The ownership and use of mobile telephones by Norwegians in 1999
This paper is an examination of the ownership and use of mobile telephones among a representative sample of 1898 Norwegians. The material comes from the 1999 SSB media use survey. The analysis provides insight into both the ownership and use of the system by various demographic groups.
ICT and everyday life - Report of Task 3, The qualitative analysis ICTs and mobility, time stress and social networking
This document is the report on the qualitative analysis (24 focus groups) carried out in 9 European countries. The analysis focused on the ownership and use of ICTs. It is co-authored by Lajla Klamer and Leslie Haddon.
Sosiale konsekvenser av mobiltelefoni: proceedings fra et seminar om samfunn, barn og mobiltelefoni
In the 16th of June 2000 Telenor R&D arranged a seminar with the title "The social consequences of mobile telephony." International researchers were invited to present their results. The seminar examined the general social consequences of mobile telephony, however several of the contributors focused on more specifically on children, teens and their relationship to mobile telephony. The document includes chapters authored by Leslie Haddon, James Katz et al., Leopoldina Fortunati, Pirjo Rautiainen/Eija-Liisa Kasesniemi and Rich Ling/Per Helmersen. The document was co-edited by Kristin Thrane.
The adoption of mobile telephony among Norwegian teens, May 2000
This paper is an examination of the ownership and use of mobile telephones among teens in Norway. The analysis provides several interesting dimensions to the use of the mobile telephone among teens. The data indicates that the majority of mid and older teens have already adopted a mobile telephone and that the adoption rates are increasing among the younger teens. It also shows that young girls are quicker to own mobile telephones than young boys but that the boys have multiple subscriptions - and probably handsets - significantly more often than the girls. Finally, the data shows that the teens use about 6 - 8% of their monthly "income" on mobile telephony. The analysis is based on a telephone survey of 1014 teens carried out in May of 2000. The respondents were between 13 and 20 years old.
"We will be reached": The use of mobile telephony among Norwegian youth
This paper examines the use of mobile telephones by teens in Norway. The data for this study is based on two sources; first I draw on qualitative interviews with a sample of 12 families with teens in the greater Oslo area. In addition, I use a quantitative study of a national sample of 1000 randomly selected teens. This material was gathered in the summer and fall of 1997. The data shows that it is boys, most often those who work, that own mobile telephones. The qualitative analysis shows that the motifs for owning mobile telephones are accessibility, safety and micro-coordination. In addition, the mobile telephone serves as a symbol of emancipation. Metaphors surrounding the telephone allow for discussions of status construction and identification.
"The only thing that I can do is to be available": Inter-generational use of e-mail
This paper analyses the use of e-mail as a method to increase the interaction between the generations. The analysis is based on the e-mail interactions for a small group of three elderly women and their grandchildren, grand nieces and in one case the child of a family friend. The data includes 46 e-mail messages as well as the text from a group interview with the women. The data shows that the high tempo and the large volume of the messages dropped off as time wore on. The data also indicates that the age of the younger correspondent as well as the expectations of the elderly correspondent were integral in the form and content of the message exchange. Finally, the analysis points to the ambiguous role of the elderly in today's society.
"I am happiest by having the best": The adoption and rejection of mobile telephony
In this paper, four ownership/shopping categories of mobile telephones are used to provide insight into the dynamics of ownership, procurement, use and attitudes towards the device. Data from 1001 telephone interviews with "teen" parents in addition to qualitative interviews with 12 families in the Oslo area form the basis for the analysis. The findings here show that fathers own and mothers loan mobile telephones, and that economic aspects are in the background when considering access to mobile telephones. In addition, those who do not own a mobile telephone are critical of its use as in areas such as coordination between marriage partners and the use of the device by youth. These findings are considered in relation to Silverstone's analysis of consumption in contemporary society.
"We release them little by little:" maturation and gender identity as seen in the use of mobile telephony
This paper examines the social meaning behind the adoption of mobile telephones by teens in Norway. Through this adoption process one can see the way in which youth are developing their adult identity as well as their gendered identity. The primary database used in this analysis is from two telephone questionnaires of Norwegian youth aged 13 to 20 carried out in October and December 1998. A total of 2007 interviews are included. The survey instrument covered teens' ownership of mobile telephones, payment forms and the use of mobile telephones to send and receive Short Message System (SMS) text messages. In addition the analysis draws on a survey of 1001 Norwegian parents and ethnographic interviews of 12 families.
"She calls, but it is for both of us you know": The use of traditional fixed and mobile telephony for social networking among Norwegian parents
This paper is an examination of parents' use of mobile and traditional fixed telephony. It examines the ways in which these technologies are used in the construction and maintenance of social networks. To examine this we use two main sources of data. The first is the transcripts from a series of 12 interviews carried out with families in the Oslo area in the spring and summer of 1997. The second is the responses from a random sample of slightly more than 1000 Norwegian parents to a questionnaire administered in August 1998. Following from Rakow and Moyal, it is found that the social use of the telephone is gendered. The data shows that women's use of the telephone is integral in their role as maintainers of the social network. The data shows that mothers are significantly more likely to call family and friends. They are significantly more likely to characterize the motivation for their calls as being "to have a chat," and they are significantly more likely to be in agreement with statements regarding the use of the telephone for social interaction. None-the-less, women's use of the telephone for these purposes is also often characterized as being unnecessary gossip. Thus, the data helps to identify the negotiation of useful social interaction vs. inconsequential chatter.
The Goretex principle: the hytte and mobile telephones in Norway
This paper examines the interaction between the use of hytte and the development of mobile telephones. Based on qualitative analysis, the authors examine the role of hytte in Norwegian culture, the issues relating to the use of mobile telephones in this context and issues surrounding the boundary between private and public life. It is here that we see the development of what we have called the goretex principle, i.e. a form of control over the in- and out-flow of information. This is interesting from a social perspective in that we are having to learn how to manage our telephonic accessibility. This paper was co-authored by Tom Julsrud and Erling Krogh.
"One can talk about common manners!": The use of mobile telephones in inappropriate situations
The use of mobile telephones in various situations has become an element in the definition of socially appropriate/inappropriate behavior. They are causing us to reconsider how we construct our social worlds. Their use demands a reevaluation of the taken-for-granted assumptions of everyday life. This paper examines how people deal with inappropriate mobile telephones use, particularly in restaurants. The data, that is the talk, was collected in focus groups and through participation in electronic discussions on Usenet. The participants from the focus groups included 50 persons, 34 men and 16 women. Of the respondents, 30 reported experience with a mobile telephone while the remaining 20 reported only limited experience. The paper has also drawn on Goffman's notion of drama and staging. From this basis it examines the reasons that restaurants are particularly sensitive to the use of mobile telephones. There is a discussion of, among other things, parallel front stages and coerced eavesdropping. Finally, there is a discussion of the management strategies available when "threatening" situations arise.
The technical definition of social boundaries: Video Telephony and the Constitution of Group Membership
After a short discussion of the theoretical approach to be use and the methods employed in the paper there are two major sections. The first is an examination of the ways in which video telephony removes barriers including a discussion of how respondents felt that video telephony will allow for nuanced discussions and how it will help in the maintenance of social institutions. The greater intimacy provided by video telephony is, however a two sided coin. Thus the section takes up the issue of boundary maintenance. It gives the respondent's perceptions of communication with intimates, how they experience integrity, openings for video telephony, placement of the device in the home, the staging of conversations and the ability to engage in parallel activities.

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